Author: Malema Seroba

South Africa’s socio-economic development has been deeply shaped by its historical inequalities, particularly those stemming from apartheid. Since 1994, the government has prioritised skills development as a tool for transformation, introducing policies such as the Skills Development Act and establishing Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs). These structures were designed to align education, training, and workforce development with economic needs.

Within this system, Sector Skills Plans (SSPs) serve as key instruments intended to identify scarce and critical skills and guide workforce development. However, despite their importance, SSPs have increasingly become compliance-driven documents, often failing to respond to the dynamic needs of industry.

This study by Dr Juliette Fourie investigated the ongoing misalignment between sector skills planning mechanisms and the actual and future workforce needs of the Freight Forwarding and Customs Clearing (FFCC) sector in South Africa.

Research Context

The Freight Forwarding and Customs Clearing (FFCC) sector plays a critical role in South Africa’s economy, facilitating international trade and contributing significantly to GDP. Despite its importance, the sector faces persistent challenges, including:

• Skills shortages
• Limited professionalisation
• Weak career pathways
• Inconsistent training quality

The sector operates within a broader system marked by high unemployment, educational inequality, and misaligned training programmes, which further complicate workforce development.

At the same time, global changes such as digitalisation, automation, and evolving supply chains are increasing the demand for advanced and adaptable skills, placing additional pressure on the sector.

Preliminary Literature Review

Existing literature highlights that skills planning in South Africa is often shaped by historical, political, and structural factors, rather than purely economic needs. While SSPs aim to bridge the gap between skills supply and demand, they are frequently criticised for:

• Relying on outdated or inaccurate data
• Being based on “best guesses” rather than rigorous analysis
• Failing to reflect on real labour market conditions

Research also points to broader systemic issues, including:

• Weak foundational education
• Low STEM graduate output
• Misalignment between qualifications and job requirements

Globally, successful models (e.g., Germany, Singapore, Netherlands) demonstrate that integrated, demand-driven approaches to skills planning, supported by strong collaboration between government, industry, and education, are far more effective.

Research Philosophy and Methodology

The study adopts an interpretivist, qualitative approach, recognising that skills development challenges are complex and socially constructed. It draws on:

• Semi-structured interviews
• Focus groups
• Document analysis

This methodology allows for a deeper understanding of lived experiences, institutional practices, and systemic challenges within the FFCC sector.

An inductive approach is used to develop insights and build a framework grounded in real-world data and stakeholder perspectives.

Research Problem

The central problem identified is the misalignment between sector skills planning and actual workforce needs.

Although SSPs are designed to guide skills development, their effectiveness is undermined by:

• Inaccurate and compliance-driven data collection, primarily through Workplace Skills Plans (WSPs)
• Limited stakeholder engagement
• Fragmented governance structures
• A lack of forward-looking, strategic planning

As a result, SSPs fail to provide an accurate picture of current and future skills requirements, limiting their ability to support sector growth and transformation.

Key Findings

The study reveals several critical issues:

1. Misalignment of Skills Supply and Demand

Skills planning does not accurately reflect industry needs, resulting in gaps between workforce capabilities and business requirements.

2. Fragmented Governance

Poor coordination between SETAs, employers, and training providers weakens the effectiveness of skills development initiatives.

3. Compliance-Driven Processes

Skills planning is treated as an administrative exercise rather than a strategic tool, reducing its impact.

4. Lack of Professionalisation

The FFCC sector lacks structured career pathways, standardised qualifications, and ongoing professional development frameworks.

5. Limited Strategic Foresight

Current systems do not adequately prepare the workforce for future trends such as digital transformation and automation.

Proposed Strategic Framework

The study proposes a new strategic framework for sector skills planning, focused on:

• Data-driven decision-making
• Inclusive stakeholder engagement
• Alignment between education, training, and industry needs
• Future-oriented workforce planning
• Continuous monitoring and adaptation

This framework aims to transform SSPs from compliance tools into strategic instruments for sector development.

Significance of the Study

The research contributes to both theory and practice by:

• Providing a practical framework for improving skills planning
• Supporting economic growth and sector competitiveness
• Enhancing workforce development and employability
• Promoting professionalisation within the FFCC sector

It also aligns with national priorities such as the National Development Plan 2030, which emphasises the importance of skills development in driving inclusive growth.

Conclusion

The study concludes that South Africa’s current approach to sector skills planning is insufficient to meet the demands of a rapidly evolving economy. A shift is required from compliance-based processes to strategic, integrated, and forward-looking systems.

By adopting a more accurate, collaborative, and future-focused approach, the FFCC sector can strengthen its workforce, improve performance, and contribute more effectively to national economic development.

The rapid rise of Industry 4.0 technologies is fundamentally reshaping how organisations operate, compete, and create value. Technologies such as artificial intelligence, cloud computing, the Internet of Things, big data analytics, and robotic process automation are now central to business strategy. While these advancements open efficiencies and innovation, they also introduce complex challenges, particularly in aligning workforce capabilities with technological change.

This study by Aubrey Ramaphosa examined how a South African technology company is adapting to these shifts. It highlights a critical tension: organisations are accelerating digital adoption, yet workforce readiness and organisational systems are not evolving at the same pace.

Research Approach

The study adopts a qualitative, interpretivist approach to understand the human experience of digital transformation. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews with employees across organisational levels, including frontline staff and senior management.

The research is guided by the Technology Readiness and Acceptance Model (TRAM), which explores how employees perceive and respond to new technologies. This framework provides a lens to understand both the drivers and barriers to successful adoption.

The Dual Impact of Industry 4.0

A central finding is the dual nature of Industry 4.0’s impact. On one hand, employees recognise the benefits of digital technologies. Automation improves efficiency, enhances decision-making, and enables innovation across the organisation.

On the other hand, these technologies introduce uncertainty. Employees express concerns about job displacement, the pace of change, and the challenge of acquiring new skills. This duality reflects a broader reality: digital transformation simultaneously creates opportunity and disruption.

Workforce Transformation

Industry 4.0 is fundamentally changing the nature of work. Routine and repetitive tasks are increasingly automated, while roles are becoming more complex and digitally oriented.

As a result, there is a growing demand for advanced capabilities such as digital literacy, analytical thinking, and adaptability. Employees are expected to continuously update their skills, placing pressure on organisations to rethink their approach to training and development.

Organisational Change

The adoption of Industry 4.0 technologies is also driving structural and cultural transformation. Organisations are shifting away from rigid hierarchies towards more agile, collaborative, and networked ways of working.

Decision-making is becoming more decentralised, and there is a stronger emphasis on innovation and continuous learning. However, without effective change management, these transitions can lead to resistance, misalignment, and reduced employee engagement.

Employee Readiness and Perception

Employee readiness emerges as a critical factor in the success of digital transformation. The study shows that employees are more likely to adopt new technologies when they perceive them as useful and easy to use.

At the same time, feelings of insecurity and discomfort can hinder adoption. This highlights the importance of managing both the technical and emotional dimensions of change. Organisations must actively support employees through the transition, rather than assuming adoption will happen naturally.

Key Challenges

Several challenges hinder effective organisational adaptation:

• Skills shortages in critical digital areas
• Limited investment in structured reskilling initiatives
• Weak alignment between technology strategy and workforce readiness
• Resistance to change driven by uncertainty and fear

These challenges reflect a broader gap between technological capability and human capacity.

Strategic Recommendations

To address these issues, organisations should prioritise a more balanced approach to digital transformation.

Investment in continuous learning and targeted reskilling is essential to close skills gaps. Transparent communication can help reduce uncertainty and build trust among employees. Leadership must play an active role in driving transformation by fostering a culture of innovation, collaboration, and adaptability.

Importantly, organisations must align their technology strategies with people strategies, ensuring that workforce development is integrated into digital transformation efforts.

Implications for Policy and Practice

The findings extend beyond a single organisation and have broader implications for South Africa’s digital economy. Policymakers and educators must address systemic challenges such as digital inequality and skills mismatches.

There is a need to align education systems with Industry 4.0 demands and to create inclusive pathways for workforce participation in the digital economy. Without such interventions, the benefits of digital transformation may remain unevenly distributed.

Conclusion

The study reinforces a critical insight: technology alone does not drive transformation. The success of Industry 4.0 depends on the alignment of technology, people, and organisational systems.

Organisations that invest in both technological capability and human development are better positioned to navigate the complexities of digital transformation. Ultimately, Industry 4.0 is not just a technological shift, but a redefinition of how work is organised, experienced, and sustained in a rapidly changing world.

The South African Private Higher Education (SAPHE) has wished well for The DaVinci Institute’s 21 years of impact, an occasion fittingly themed “Coming of Age.” An acknowledgement of the great facilitation of the good course, the message from SAPHE reflects the Institute’s enduring influence on leadership, innovation, and sector-wide transformation.

Board Chairperson and a DaVinci alumna

Dr Carin Stoltz-Urban, SAPHE Board Chairperson and a DaVinci alumna, the moment is both professional and personal. Her reflection shows the Institute’s role not only as an academic institution but as a catalyst for individual growth and systemic change. 

“Over two decades, DaVinci has built a reputation for its distinctive transdisciplinary approach, one that moves beyond traditional academic silos to equip graduates to navigate complexity, think systemically, and lead with purpose,” said Dr Stoltz-Urban.

She added that this educational philosophy has translated into tangible impact. Across the private higher education sector, many senior leaders trace their intellectual and leadership foundations back to DaVinci. 

Responsiveness to Change

This growing network of alumni in influential positions speaks to the Institute’s role in shaping the sector’s direction, maturity, and responsiveness to change.

Dr Carin Stoltz-Urban’s message also highlights DaVinci’s contribution beyond its own institutional boundaries. As a founding member of the association, the Institute has played a meaningful role in strengthening collaboration within the private higher education ecosystem. Its active participation has helped amplify the collective voice of the sector, advancing a more innovative and adaptive educational landscape in South Africa.

As DaVinci enters its next chapter, the partnership with SAPHE remains a cornerstone of its broader impact. The celebration of 21 years is not just a reflection on the past, but a signal of continued influence, one that will shape leaders, organisations, and society for years to come.

The DaVinci Institute, in partnership with Nutun, officially launched the Higher Certificate in Management of Technology and Innovation programme across, setting the intellectual, cultural, and strategic foundation for the journey ahead.

The programme is more than an academic exercise. It was framed as a deliberate investment in both individual capability and organisational impact. This was followed by a clear and structured programme overview, outlining the learning pathway, expected outcomes, and the level of commitment required. By establishing this clarity early, the session reduced ambiguity and reinforced accountability among participants.

 Nutun’s HR Executive

A defining moment of the launch was the address by Nutun’s HR Executive, showing the impact of the programme Nutun’s organisational context. The message was direct: learning must translate into measurable value. It is not enough to acquire knowledge; participants are expected to apply it in ways that drive performance and innovation within the organisation. 

The introduction of DaVinci Faculty Heads further reinforced the depth of academic support, positioning them as facilitators of critical thinking rather than traditional lecturers.

DaVinci Lenses

Head of Programme, Dr Sam February, touched on DaVinci Lenses and introduced participants to the frameworks that will shape how they interpret complexity, make decisions, and engage with interconnected systems. Complementing this, Dr Linda Chipunza’s session on Learning Styles and Shadow Match challenged participants to reflect on their own learning behaviours, uncover blind spots, and recognise how unconscious patterns may influence their engagement.

Overall, the launch signalled a clear intent: this programme is not about passive learning, but about developing individuals who can think critically, reflect deeply, and lead effectively in a complex and evolving environment.

South Africa is not facing a shortage of potential. It is facing a crisis of identity. Charley Pietersen, a South African author, international speaker, and social reform advocate whose life journey reflects resilience, purpose, and transformation, recently engaged with The DaVinci Institute on the social challenges affecting men in the country.

Behind the statistics on gender-based violence, crime, substance abuse, and mental health lies a deeper and less discussed issue: fatherlessness. It is a quiet crisis, yet one that is shaping the trajectory of an entire generation of boys who are growing into men without guidance, identity, or emotional grounding.

For Pietersen, this is not theory. It is a lived experience. Born in Smithfield in the Free State and raised in a fatherless home by a single mother, he reflects the very crisis he now speaks about. From building a career in institutions like First National Bank and Standard Bank, CEO of Bloemfontein Celtic FC, Free State Provincial Office to contributing to South Africa’s 2010 FIFA World Cup success, his life has been defined by resilience, discipline, and purpose.

“This is not a theory. It is a lived experience. Growing up without a father is not just about absence. It is about unanswered questions: Who am I? Where do I come from? What does it mean to be a man?” said Pietersen.

When those questions are left unresolved, they do not disappear. They manifest in anger, bitterness, confusion, withdrawal, or destructive behaviour.

The Identity Gap No One Is Addressing

In many South African households, particularly those led by single mothers or grandparents, boys are raised with love and sacrifice. Yet love alone cannot replace identity.

Too often, conversations about absent fathers are avoided. A boy asks, and the question is dismissed. Over time, that silence becomes a gap, and that gap becomes a wound.

By the time these boys reach adolescence, the symptoms begin to show:

Emotional detachment

Aggression or rebellion

A search for belonging in the wrong places

What society often labels as problematic behaviour is, in many cases, a crisis of identity.

A One-Sided Empowerment Narrative

South Africa has, rightly, invested heavily in empowering women and the girl child. This work is necessary and important. However, it has unintentionally created a silence around the needs of boys.

“There are many platforms that say, ‘empower the girl child,’ but where are the platforms that say to young men, ‘you matter too’?” Pietersen asked.

When boys are not affirmed, guided, or mentored, they do not remain neutral. They become vulnerable to crime, gangsterism, substance abuse, and harmful expressions of masculinity.

Broken Men, Broken Systems

We cannot speak honestly about issues like gender-based violence without asking a difficult question: What is happening to our men?

It is easy to label men as perpetrators. It is harder, but more necessary, to understand the root causes behind the behaviour.

Many of the men who perpetrate violence are themselves products of absent fathers, unresolved trauma, lack of role models, and emotional neglect. This is not an excuse. It is an explanation. Without understanding it, solutions will remain superficial.

“South Africa is investing millions into addressing the symptoms of societal breakdown. But until we confront the root cause, the making of broken men, the cycle will continue,” said Pietersen.

Pain Does Not Discriminate

One of the most overlooked truths is that pain is universal. It does not matter whether you are wealthy or poor, successful or struggling or from which race or ethnicity. Emotional wounds do not recognise status.

Many men suffer in silence, believing they are alone in their struggles. In reality, across boardrooms, communities, and households, men are dealing with identity crises, mental health challenges, unprocessed trauma, and pressure to perform without support.

The difference is not the presence of pain. It is the presence, or absence, of tools to deal with it.

Rebuilding Through Purpose and Community

If fatherlessness is the root problem, then mentorship, structure, and purpose must be part of the solution. South Africa does not lack people. It lacks coordinated action.

Pietersen emphasised the importance of institutional partnerships, highlighting The DaVinci Institute as a critical collaborator in developing structured programmes for men in both corporate and community environments.

“We need spaces that do more than talk. We need spaces that equip, mentor, and transform. Through collaboration, we can begin to design programmes that address identity, purpose, and leadership among men,” he said.

Imagine a country where men mentor young boys in their communities, where skills and opportunities are shared openly, where communities take responsibility for their environments, and where knowledge flows between generations. This is not idealism. It is practical nation-building.

“Movements led by figures like Angus Buchan have already shown that when men gather with purpose, transformation is possible. The challenge is scaling that intention into sustained systems,” Pietersen added.

A Vision for the Future: The Fatherless Academy

South Africa does not lack potential; it lacks structure, guidance, and intentional spaces where brokenness can be rebuilt into strength. Across our communities, countless boys are growing up without fathers, navigating life without direction, affirmation, or a sense of belonging. What they need is not sympathy, but strategy. Not temporary relief, but lasting intervention.

The time has come for a bold and deliberate response: the establishment of a Fatherless Academy.

This Academy would be more than just a place; it would be a movement. A safe and structured environment where boys without father figures are not defined by their circumstances but reshaped by opportunity. Here, mentorship would not be occasional; it would be consistent, intentional, and life-shaping. Boys would be guided by men who understand their struggles, who have walked similar roads, and who are committed to helping them rise above their past.

Discipline would not be enforced through fear but cultivated through purpose. Values such as respect, responsibility, integrity, and self-belief would be embedded in daily life. The Academy would restore what has been missing: structure, routine, and accountability, while nurturing confidence and identity.

Every boy carries something within him: a gift, a talent, a calling. Too often, these remain undiscovered in environments of neglect. The Fatherless Academy would intentionally identify and develop these abilities, whether in the arts, in technical trades, in sport, or in leadership. Each young man would be seen, known, and developed according to his unique potential.

But development without opportunity is incomplete. The Academy would serve as a bridge between growth and real economic participation. It would connect young men to skills training, entrepreneurship pathways, and employment opportunities, ensuring they do not just dream of a better future but step into it equipped and prepared.

This is not just a vision, it is a necessity. Because when you rebuild a boy, you restore a family. When you restore a family, you strengthen a community. And when communities are strengthened, a nation begins to heal.

The Fatherless Academy is not about fixing what is broken; it is about unlocking what has always been there, waiting for the right environment to thrive.

Such an initiative would not only change individual lives but also transform communities. Pietersen believes that collaboration with institutions like The DaVinci Institute can help turn this vision into a scalable and sustainable reality.

The Work Ahead

South Africa is not beyond repair. But the solution requires honesty.

We must acknowledge the impact of fatherlessness.

We must invest in the emotional and psychological development of men.

We must create platforms for boys to discover identity and purpose.

We must rebuild communities from within.

For institutions like The DaVinci Institute, this moment calls for more than dialogue; it calls for decisive action. It is an opportunity to move beyond conversation and become active architects of change through education, leadership development, and meaningful community impact.

Because at its core, this is not merely a social challenge, it is a generational responsibility. The choices we make today will echo in the lives of young men tomorrow.

If we fail to act, we risk continuing a cycle that produces men who are disconnected, unsupported, and uncertain of their place in society. But if we intervene, intentionally, collaboratively, and with purpose, we have the power to raise a generation of men who are grounded in values, driven by purpose, and equipped to lead South Africa forward.

When men are restored, families begin to stabilise. And when families stabilise, communities grow stronger. Ultimately, it is through this restoration that a nation finds its footing again and begins the work of rebuilding itself.

The DaVinci Institute congratulates Dr Ngobani Johnstone Makhubu on his appointment as Commissioner of the South African Revenue Service (SARS).

Dr Makhubu brings extensive experience across complex, regulated environments. His contribution to shaping and executing SARS’s strategic trajectory signals strong continuity and leadership capability at a time when institutional effectiveness is significant.

SARS occupies a central role in South Africa’s development architecture and remains at the forefront of funding the country’s democracy. Its ability to sustain revenue performance, deepen voluntary compliance, and enable economic participation is fundamental to the State’s capacity to deliver on its social and infrastructure commitments. Leadership transitions of this nature are therefore not merely administrative but pivotal moments in reinforcing public trust and institutional resilience.

The DaVinci Institute particularly recognises the value of deliberate succession planning, as reflected in this appointment. The progression from within SARS affirms the importance of cultivating leadership pipelines grounded in institutional knowledge, strategic coherence, and a commitment to public value.

“Authentic leadership within revenue services is of critical importance during times of socio-economic re-alignment, even more so if such occurs as a result of inequality over a lengthy period of time,” said Prof Benjamin Anderson, CEO of The DaVinci Institute.

We also acknowledge the significant contribution of Commissioner Edward Kieswetter since 2019, whose leadership has strengthened SARS as a credible and high-performing institution within South Africa’s governance landscape. As of 31 March 2026, SARS collected net revenue of R2 010.3 billion over the previous fiscal year, representing growth of 8.4% and exceeding the 5.4% nominal GDP growth recorded in the third quarter of 2025.

As an institution dedicated to developing capable leaders, we are encouraged by this transition and its potential to further strengthen state capability.

We wish Dr Makhubu every success as he leads SARS into its next phase of impact and evolution.

Doctoral education plays a critical role in shaping knowledge production and societal advancement. However, growing concerns exist regarding the disconnect between academic research and real-world impact. There is a need for competencies required of effective supervisors, the systemic challenges within higher education, and the urgent need to reposition doctoral studies toward meaningful societal contribution. The Dean of Research and Head of the Institute for Postgraduate Studies at STADIO Higher Education in South Africa, Prof Flip Schutte, highlights the importance of human-centred supervision, post-graduation engagement, and a reorientation of academic culture toward community impact.

In the evolving landscape of higher education, the role of doctoral supervision extends beyond guiding students toward thesis completion. It involves nurturing individuals through a transformative journey, from student to scholar, while ensuring their research contributes meaningfully to society. Despite increasing doctoral outputs aligned with national development goals, questions remain regarding the relevance, application, and visibility of doctoral research beyond academic institutions.

The human-centred supervisor: beyond technical expertise

According to Prof Schutte, effective supervision is not primarily defined by technical expertise in research methodologies, but by human competencies. A supervisor must demonstrate empathy, compassion, and the ability to build meaningful relationships. 

“Doctoral supervision is a deeply personal and transformative process, requiring supervisors to ‘walk alongside’ students as they evolve intellectually and professionally,” shared Prof Schutte. 

He added that while methodological knowledge remains essential, it is the supervisor’s interpersonal skills that determine the success or failure of the supervisory relationship. Without emotional intelligence and a genuine concern for student development, even the most knowledgeable academic may fall short.

The academic paradox: knowledge production vs societal impact

A persistent challenge within academia is the emphasis on research output over societal relevance. Academic careers are often evaluated based on publications, conference presentations, and citations. This has fostered a culture in which scholars prioritise publishing papers, sometimes with little to no real-world application.

In many cases, research output remains confined to academic journals, with minimal engagement in industry, policy, or community contexts. This raises critical questions:

• What is the value of research that is never applied?
• How does it contribute to societal development?

A balanced approach is required, one that integrates rigorous research with practical implementation in sectors such as commerce, healthcare, technology, and public policy.

The missing voice: post-doctoral silence

A notable gap in doctoral education is the lack of visibility and impact of graduates after completion. Many doctoral candidates disappear into obscurity after graduation, with their research neither implemented nor disseminated widely.

“This reflects a limitation in current supervisory models, which often focus narrowly on thesis completion. Doctoral education should not end at graduation; rather, it should include post-graduation engagement, where supervisors support graduates in applying their research in real-world contexts,” shared Prof Schutte.

Continuous supervision or mentorship beyond graduation could enable the implementation of research frameworks and models, industry engagement and collaboration and societal contribution through practical solutions.

Rethinking doctoral admissions in the age of AI

The rise of artificial intelligence presents new challenges for maintaining academic integrity and quality. He urged institutions to adopt more rigorous selection criteria for doctoral candidates, focusing not only on academic capability but also on purpose and intent.

A critical question institutions should ask prospective candidates is:

“What contribution will your research make to society?”

Candidates who lack clarity on their intended impact may not yet be ready for doctoral study. Doctoral education should be purpose-driven, aligned with national priorities, and geared toward solving real-world problems.

From qualification to contribution: a national imperative

In the context of South Africa’s development agenda, increasing the number of doctoral graduates is not sufficient. The focus must shift from quantity to impact. Each doctoral study should contribute to societal advancement, whether through economic development, community upliftment, or organisational improvement.

Institutions must track and demonstrate the impact of their graduates by answering:

• Where are doctoral graduates applying their knowledge?
• What measurable contributions have they made?

Without such accountability, doctoral education risks becoming a costly exercise with limited return on investment.

Breaking academic ego and embracing community engagement

Two critical shifts are required within academia:

Academic environments often encourage competitiveness and intellectual elitism. This can create barriers to collaboration and meaningful engagement. Scholars must move beyond the need to “prove intellectual superiority” and instead focus on collective impact.

Prof Schutte said higher education must actively engage with communities, industries, and the broader society. This involves: listening to real-world challenges, conducting research informed by societal needs and integrating these insights into the curriculum and teaching.

“This approach reverses the traditional model of knowledge production, moving from community-informed research rather than theory-driven assumptions,” he added. 

Preparing for future doctoral candidates: a holistic approach

He shared that the journey toward doctoral studies begins long before postgraduate education. Three foundational elements are critical: Strong reading, writing, and analytical skills developed at the school level are essential for academic success, participation in sports, hobbies, and teamwork builds resilience, discipline, and interpersonal skills, key attributes for research and leadership and engagement with current affairs through news and media enables individuals to identify real-world problems worth researching.

“Doctoral education must undergo a paradigm shift, from producing theses to producing impact. Supervisors must prioritise human-centred mentorship, institutions must emphasise societal contribution, and academics must actively engage beyond the confines of academia,” Prof Schutte.

The value of a doctorate lies not in the qualification itself, but in its ability to transform society. Without this focus, doctoral education risks becoming an insular exercise disconnected from the realities it seeks to address.